Macbeth: The Bloodbath Essay

Macbeth is by far the bloodiest of William Shakespeare’s plays. It begins with a civil war battle between the Scottish and Norwegian army, where Macbeth embodies his heroic and courageous figure. However, Macbeth eventually transforms into a villain, who murders the innocent with a lust for power. For the most part, blood is symbolic of violence and destruction. The frequent repetition of this imagery represents the murder, and the emotion following the murder, which is guilt. Shakespeare uses imagery of blood throughout the play to exemplify and express the guilt of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth after their deeds. After each murder, the act of guilt and regret increases. However, Macbeth soon accepts the fact that he will never be the same after murdering Duncan, which hardens him. Since he will never be the good captain he was at the civil war, he goes on killing left and right. Shakespeare’s nuance use of blood imagery traces Macbeth’s moral transformation from goo d to evil. Though Macbeth is known as an evil figure throughout the play, him as the heroic captain towards the beginning exemplifies the good character he could have been. During the civil war, Macbeth is known as a wounded captain who performs an action that is unlike him through the rest of the book. After Macbeth completes his good deed, he says, â€Å"For brave Macbeth (well he deserves that name), / Disdaining Fortune, with his brandished steel, / Which smoked with bloody execution† (1.2.18-20). Macbeth has killed Macdonwald, a leader of the Norwegian forces fighting the Scottish. The blood that pours out of Macdonwald’s flesh represents good blood. The murder is for the sake of Scotland, which brings peace and victory. As a result of victory, Macbeth is given a new title: â€Å"Go, pronounce his present / death, / And with his former title greet Macbeth† (1.3.74-6). Duncan has given the title of Thane of Cawdor to Macbeth. However, this victory is very much the begin ning of Macbeth’s downfall because of his gradual lust for power. Although guilt and regret express Macbeth’s concern for the deeds he has done, he soon accepts the fact that he will never be the same after Duncan’s murder. The good blood that is shed after the murder of Macdonwald is the only good blood in the play. After Macbeth murders Duncan, he begins to realize that he will never be the same, â€Å"Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood / Clean from my hand? No, this my hand will rather / The multitudinous seas incarnadine† (2.2.78-80). The blood imagery represents his life changing forever because the blood of Duncan (the murder) will never go away. Not even Neptune, the God of the sea can wash it away. This murder is used for only Macbeth’s benefit, which sheds bad blood. In addition, the blood imagery also epitomizes the guilt and regret that follows the murder. Macbeth has now dug himself in a hole that is nearly impossible to get out. After the death of Banquo, there are a series of times where Macbeth meets the ghost of Banquo. Once Macbeth sees him for the second time, he says, â€Å"I am in blood / Stepped in so far that, should I wade no more, / Returning were as tedious as go o’er† (3.4.168-170). Macbeth says that he might as well continue killing because he has nothing to lose. It is like he is an evil, immortal killing machine that will not stop. He has already killed Duncan, Banquo, and will soon kill the family of Macduff. Moreover, Macbeth is regretting his crimes because he thinks about returning to his old self. Though Macbeth seems to love Lady Macbeth unconditionally, blood and murder has brainwashed him so much, that her death does not even faze him. Lady Macbeth is the reason for the start of Macbeth’s downfall. Furthermore, she brainwashed, taunted, and persuaded him to kill Duncan, which led to his collapse. After Macbeth hears about the cry of his woman, he says, â€Å"I have supped full with horrors, / Direness, familiar to my slaughterhouse thoughts, / Cannot once s tart me† (5.5.15-17). Macbeth exemplifies his decline and is not bothered by this cry because he has experienced his own bloody terrors. Murder and blood has scarred his life forever, ruining his relationship with his wife. During the final face off between Macbeth and Macduff, Macbeth says, â€Å"But get thee back. My soul is too much charged / With blood of thine already† (5.8.6-7). The blood imagery represents each and every one of his murders in the past. Furthermore, Macbeth admits his burdens to Macduff and is reluctant to fight him. Macbeth  is conscious that he has already killed his family and is sure of killing him too if they fight. As a result, Macbeth is the one drowning in his own blood by the blade of Macduff. Shakespeare uses blood imagery to ultimately stress the overwhelming guilt and regret that Macbeth feels after each murder. It is like a reminder of the wicked crimes that have been committed. In addition, blood imagery guides the reader through Macbeth’s path and transformation from good to evil and his downfall. Blood and murder blind Macbeth from what is and was most important to him at the start; Lady Macbeth. It is almost as if his life tarnished and is meaningless as more blood piles on throughout the play. After Duncan’s death, his mind revolves solely around his lust for power, which leads to his downfall.

Eating out Vs. Eating In Essay

Throughout the years the economy has changed drastically, putting us into a terrible recession. Gas prices have increased, taxes have increased, and many foolish, young girls are having babies that they cannot support, causing them to go on welfare, making hard working citizens such as you, and me pay for their needs. Food is an essential part of daily life. Why waste even more of my hard earned money by eating out, when I can easily save it, and be much healthier by eating in? I am on a tight budget, very family oriented, and conscious about my health, so eating at home, rather than going out is more beneficial because it’s healthier, cheaper, and more comfortable for me to be in my own environment. I don’t know about you, but to me, there is nothing better than a full wallet, a full belly, and being able to kick back, relax, and enjoy the comfort of my home. First off, eating at home is much healthier than eating out. Preparing food at home allows me to control the ingredients that I add to the meal, and I can be sure that the food and dishes are properly cleaned, since I did it myself. Being a huge germ-a-phoebe, I always wash my dishes in hot water, and use lots of soap. I find relief in knowing that only myself, and my family have used our utensils; no one else. Furthermore, I always make sure to thoroughly clean my food before I cook it, to ensure that it is not rotten, and all the bacteria is removed. I do this mostly with meats, lettuce, fruits, and vegetables. I am very conscious about my weight, and my health, so I eat in portions, grill instead of fry, and try to cut out as many carbs, sugars, and fats as I can. However, restaurants do not try to cut out any of those things. In fact, restaurant meals are often fried, and contain high sodium, oil, and fat, which can cause high cholesterol, and weight gain, making them very unhealthy. It also cuts down my options on their menu a great deal. I find it very important to eat healthy so I can keep my energy levels up, maintain a strong mind and body, and prevent myself from possibly developing any health issues in the future. Statistics show that 1 in 4 people a year, suffer from food poising caused by eating out. When I eat at a restaurant I always worry about who is touching my food, if their hands are clean, what they put in my food, or if the food is old, or cleaned properly. I also worry about the eating utensils, and if they are cleaned thoroughly. If they are not, I could be ingesting millions of germs and bacteria from a complete stranger who ate there before me. Restaurants are public places with many people inside; some of which could be ill. If I were to come in contact with them, I could easily catch their germs, and become ill as well. When I eat at home, prepare and clean my own food, and use utensils that I cleaned myself, I never have to worry about any of those health risks caused by eating out. Secondly, eating at home instead of at a restaurant enables me to cut down on my budget, and save more money. Usually, there is always food at my house. My mom always buys macaroni and cheese, soup, lunch meats, cereal, or hot pockets. Whenever I don’t have a taste for any of those things, or if there is none left, my mother and I take a five minute walk to our local Jewel-Osco, where they always have great deals. Just the other day, we bought a four pack of boneless chicken breasts, a pound of pasta, pesto sauce, mushrooms, garlic, lemons, and a 2-liter of soda, for a total of roughly $32 dollars. Restaurants, on the other hand, have to ensure on making enough money to buy more ingredients, pay their employees, pay bills, etc. , so food prices at restaurants are always higher than food I buy at the grocery store, and prepare myself. For example, when my family of four goes out to our favorite Italian restaurant, Giacomos’s, and we order the same exact meal my mother and I purchased at Jewel, it is $16 dollars a plate per person, plus $2 dollars per glass of soda, 25% of the bill as a tip for the waiter, and around $10 dollars in gas to drive there. That totals out to be around $100 dollars, meaning we save roughly $70 dollars just by eating in. A U. S. survey shows that a family can save around $2,000 dollars a year, just by eating at home. Last but not least, I am much more comfortable eating at home, rather than eating out at a restaurant for many reasons. A few years ago, I was with my friend, Sarah at Panera Bread, and a middle aged man came and sat down at a table right next to us, even though there was many empty tables further away. While I was eating, I started to tell Sarah a joke, and when I reached the punch line, we both burst out laughing, and so did the man. After that, he kept staring at me eat, while listening intently to more of our conversation. I felt very annoyed, uncomfortable, and I just wanted to leave. Sometimes restaurants are also very crowded, and noisy, and they have disgusting looking bathrooms that have toilet paper all over the floor, and they smell like rotting pee. Like I mentioned, I am a germ-a-phoebe, and I’m also claustrophobic, so it is very hard to find peace, and comfort in an environment like that. Furthermore, any time I go out to a restaurant, or in public, I always try to look my best just in case I run into a cute guy, or someone I know. This of course takes time. I have to put on makeup, do my hair, and try on a hundred different outfits until I am completely satisfied with how I look. Most of the time I’m satisfied with tight fighting clothing that squeezes my whole body, causing extreme discomfort. Yet when I eat at home, I don’t have to waste time doing any of those things. I can be a bum if I want to, and wear sweatpants. I don’t need to put on makeup, I can throw my hair up in a messy bun, and not have to worry about impressing anyone. Most importantly, I don’t have to stress out about it being too crowded or noisy in my home, since I only live with three other people. I can even sit on my couch, relax, and watch my favorite TV shows while I eat, all snuggled up, comfy, and stress free. More so, I can use my own clean, and fresh smelling bathroom without having to wait in line, or squat above the toilet seat. Can’t beat that. In conclusion, I prefer eating at home rather than eating out because it is healthier, cheaper, and much more comfortable. Not to mention much more sanitary also. I don’t have to worry about food poisoning, nosey strangers, being broke, getting ready, or being uncomfortable. Restaurants cook mainly fatty foods, charge way too much, and are usually crowded and noisy. After a long, hard day at work, I can’t wait to kick my shoes off, change into comfy PJ’s, eat a healthy dinner, and relax in my quiet, stress free house, saving time and money, while finding comfort in the privacy of my home, sweet home.

Deception Point Page 81

â€Å"As you know,† the CIA director went on, his tone sharpening, â€Å"all U.S. government entities who deal with sensitive intelligence information are governed by strict rules of secrecy-military, CIA, NSA, NRO-all of them must abide by stringent laws regarding the concealment of the data they glean and the technologies they develop. I ask you all, yet again, why NASA-the agency currently producing the largest portion of cutting-edge aerospace, imaging, flight, software, reconnaissance, and telecom technologies used by the military and intelligence community-exists outside this umbrella of secrecy.† The President heaved a weighty sigh. The proposal was clear. Restructure NASA to become part of the U.S. military intelligence community. Although similar restructurings had happened with other agencies in the past, Herney refused to entertain the idea of placing NASA under the auspices of the Pentagon, the CIA, the NRO, or any other military directive. The National Security Council was starting to splinter on the issue, many siding with the intelligence community. Lawrence Ekstrom never looked pleased at these meetings, and this was no exception. He shot an acrimonious glare toward the CIA director. â€Å"At the risk of repeating myself, sir, the technologies NASA develops are for nonmilitary, academic applications. If your intelligence community wants to turn one of our space telescopes around and look at China, that's your choice.† The CIA director looked like he was about to boil over. Pickering caught his eye and stepped in. â€Å"Larry,† he said, careful to keep an even tone, â€Å"every year NASA kneels before Congress and begs for money. You're running operations with too little funding, and you're paying the price in failed missions. If we incorporate NASA into the intelligence community, NASA will no longer need to ask Congress for help. You would be funded by the black budget at significantly higher levels. It's a win-win. NASA will have the money it needs to run itself properly, and the intelligence community will have peace of mind that NASA technologies are protected.† Ekstrom shook his head. â€Å"On principle, I cannot endorse painting NASA with that brush. NASA is about space science; we have nothing to do with national security.† The CIA director stood up, something never done when the President was seated. Nobody stopped him. He glared down at the administrator of NASA. â€Å"Are you telling me you think science has nothing to do with national security? Larry, they are synonymous, for God's sake! It is only this country's scientific and technological edge that keeps us secure, and whether we like it or not, NASA is playing a bigger and bigger part in developing those technologies. Unfortunately, your agency leaks like a sieve and has proven time and again that its security is a liability!† The room fell silent. Now the administrator of NASA stood up and locked eyes with his attacker. â€Å"So you suggest locking twenty thousand NASA scientists in airtight military labs and making them work for you? Do you really think NASA's newest space telescopes would have been conceived had it not been for our scientists' personal desire to see deeper into space? NASA makes astonishing breakthroughs for one reason only-our employees want to understand the cosmos more deeply. They are a community of dreamers who grew up staring at starry skies and asking themselves what was up there. Passion and curiosity are what drive NASA's innovation, not the promise of military superiority.† Pickering cleared his throat, speaking softly, trying to lower the temperatures around the table. â€Å"Larry, I'm certain the director is not talking about recruiting NASA scientists to build military satellites. Your NASA mission statement would not change. NASA would carry on business as usual, except you would have increased funding and increased security.† Pickering turned now to the President. â€Å"Security is expensive. Everyone in this room certainly realizes that NASA's security leaks are a result of underfunding. NASA has to toot its own horn, cut corners on security measures, run joint projects with other countries so they can share the price tag. I am proposing that NASA remain the superb, scientific, nonmilitary entity it currently is, but with a bigger budget, and some discretion.† Several members of the security council nodded in quiet agreement. President Herney stood slowly, staring directly at William Pickering, clearly not at all amused with the way Pickering had just taken over. â€Å"Bill, let me ask you this: NASA is hoping to go to Mars in the next decade. How will the intelligence community feel about spending a hefty portion of the black budget running a mission to Mars-a mission that has no immediate national security benefits?† â€Å"NASA will be able to do as they please.† â€Å"Bullshit,† Herney replied flatly. Everyone's eyes shot up. President Herney seldom used profanity. â€Å"If there is one thing I've learned as president,† Herney declared, â€Å"it's that those who control the dollars control the direction. I refuse to put NASA's purse strings in the hands of those who do not share the objectives for which the agency was founded. I can only imagine how much pure science would get done with the military deciding which NASA missions are viable.† Herney's eyes scanned the room. Slowly, purposefully, he returned his rigid gaze to William Pickering. â€Å"Bill,† Herney sighed, â€Å"your displeasure that NASA is engaged in joint projects with foreign space agencies is painfully shortsighted. At least someone is working constructively with the Chinese and Russians. Peace on this planet will not be forged by military strength. It will be forged by those who come together despite their governments' differences. If you ask me, NASA's joint missions do more to promote national security than any billion-dollar spy satellite, and with a hell of a lot better hope for the future.† Pickering felt an anger welling deep within him. How dare a politician talk down to me this way! Herney's idealism played fine in a boardroom, but in the real world, it got people killed. â€Å"Bill,† Marjorie Tench interrupted, as if sensing Pickering was about to explode, â€Å"we know you lost a child. We know this is a personal issue for you.† Pickering heard nothing but condescension in her tone. â€Å"But please remember,† Tench said, â€Å"that the White House is currently holding back a floodgate of investors who want us to open space to the private sector. If you ask me, for all its mistakes, NASA has been one hell of a friend to the intel community. You all might just want to count your blessings.† A rumble strip on the shoulder of the highway jolted Pickering's mind back to the present. His exit was coming up. As he approached the exit for D.C., he passed a bloody deer lying dead by the side of the road. He felt an odd hesitation†¦ but he kept driving. He had a rendezvous to keep. 96 The Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial is one of the largest memorials in the nation. With a park, waterfalls, statuary, alcoves, and basin, the memorial is divided into four outdoor galleries, one for each of FDR's terms in office. A mile from the memorial, a lone Kiowa Warrior coasted in, high over the city, its running lights dimmed. In a town boasting as many VIPs and media crews as D.C., helicopters in the skies were as common as birds flying south. Delta-One knew that as long as he stayed well outside what was known as â€Å"the dome†-a bubble of protected airspace around the White House-he should draw little attention. They would not be here long. The Kiowa was at twenty-one hundred feet when it slowed adjacent to, but not directly over, the darkened FDR Memorial. Delta-One hovered, checking his position. He looked to his left, where Delta-Two was manning the night vision telescopic viewing system. The video feed showed a greenish image of the entry drive of the memorial. The area was deserted.

Impulsive buying in luxury consumption among Chinese consumers ( table Dissertation

Impulsive buying in luxury consumption among Chinese consumers ( table of contents ) - Dissertation Example The number of affluent households (whose annual income exceed RMB 250,000) in China is expected to reach 4.4 million by 2015. With the growing affluence in China and the demand for luxury brands on the rise, marketers need to evaluate the needs and wants of the luxury consumers. Thus, with the aim to evaluate impulsive consumer buying behaviour in the luxury segment in China, three objectives were stated and all the three objectives have been met. The study finds that consumer buying behaviour is influenced by the internal and external factors. The thought process and emotions behind consumer decisions, the environmental variables, the motivations, the individual differences and personal factors influence the purchasing decisions. The Chinese consumers associate luxury goods and consumption with culture and history, although some did associate luxury with price. Most Chinese consumers demonstrate Veblen, Snob and the Bandwagon effect, while some do lay emphasis on their own thoughts and feelings (hedonists). The Chinese consumers do attach importance to price but not too much significance to the CoO (Country-of-Origin) possibly because they follow what the others do. Culture influences the psychological factors in the luxury segment. The psychological factors include perception, attitudes, and motives towards luxury consumption. Chinese society is a collectivist society where conforming to the societal norms comes naturally to people. The growing affluence has enhanced the trend towards luxury consumption. The Chinese consumers find luxury brands deliver psychological values as it enhances their self-esteem and self-confidence. Since the Chinese consumers are affluent, status-seeking behaviour was found to influence luxury consumption. Such consumption satisfies their inner drives and gives them self-fulfillment. The Chinese consumers demonstrate impulsive buying behaviour in luxury consumption. Self-esteem and enhancing social status appear to be the strongest motivators in impulse purchase of luxury goods. Because of the impulsive tendencies they may become compulsive buyers as well. The study concludes that the consumerism has changed the way people consume. The definition of luxury too needs to be redefined as it is no more the prerogative of a few. As affluence has grown consumerism and materialism has grown which in turn has changed buying behaviour. The motives, attitudes and perceptions have undergone change and this change is ongoing. Consumers are becoming impulsive in their buying behaviour and this is predominant even in luxury consumption. The task for marketers is complex in trying to segment, target and position luxury brands. However, since impulsive buying does exist in luxury consumption, promotions can be designed to stimulate impulsive buying. The study concluded by suggesting area for further research on the subject. Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Rationale for research 2 1.3 Research Aims and Objectives 3 1.4 Structure of the Study 4 Chapter Two: Literature review 2.1 Chapter Overview 5 2.2 Consumer buying behaviour 5 2.3 Stages of consumer buying behaviour 9 2.4 Types of consumer buying behaviour 11 2.5 Factors affecting consumer buying behaviour 15 2.6 Luxury buying behaviour 18 Chapter Three: Methodology 3.1 Research Philosophy 22 3.2 Purpose of the research and phenomena 22 3.3 Epistemology 22 3.4 Research strategy 24 3.5 Data

Middle school and high school students Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Middle school and high school students - Essay Example There is an emergence of two dominating ideas related to analyzing the provided information,the first suggested active involvement of students and teachers' enthusiasm laying the way for positive images of social studies in high and mid-school students The second idea was the perceiving of a utilitarian value emphasizing that students were not as negative toward social studies as indicated in researches made before.My instructional environment as well as my interwoven opinions of the author's research takes place in a middle school consisting of 7th and 8th grade classes. The students are organized into six academic teams: three 7th graders and three 8th graders teams. Each team consisted of five core academic subjects: English, Social Studies, Math, Science and Reading. The first notion of the study was in the following up with the first idea: it was discovered that ongoing changes in curriculum design, teaching methodology and administrative practices (especially those of punishmen t as well as detention) have an affecting attitude on the perceiving perspectives of students and the emphatic notable conclusions of the feeling of boredom, irrelevance of subject and the lack of personal interaction of students with their teachers in class.I teach in a 7th grade Social Studies classroom. There is also a Learning Support teacher that works with Learning Support students that have IEP's on each team. Students are heterogeneously grouped in all classes except Math. This class has two sections of Advanced Math students and three sections of Integrated Math students. Each team also has an inclusion class that all of the Learning Support students attend at the same time. Each inclusion class is provided with a Learning Support teacher or a teaching assistant to help with instruction. I understood and found out that the relationship between student attitudes toward social sciences and educational methodology in schools, differing according to districts as well as the lev el of income from which they are related to, relates to their achievement towards the curriculum needs and offered possibilities of the better future. Students tend to experience the subject other than memorize and dot down the content and concepts, instead, they would rather induce and reduce into a deduction form the conceptual meanings behind that of which relates them to a "bettering" of their social environment, which is the relational angle between student achievement and student self-applaud ( self-fulfillment): parents care for the achievement as well as reinforced value of the subject by the teachers' backing them up with credits and giving their opinions credentials. There is more general information concerning my teaching environment that would pertain to academic research. My teaching environment is very homogeneous relative to race. Nearly 97% of the students are white. The few minority students are African-American and Latino. The area is rural but has undergone rapid growth over the past decade. Another important fact is that many of the students in my teaching environment are considered low-income students. Nearly half of them receive free or reduced lunches based on criteria set by the federal government. A possible scenario for quantitative research is in the number of teachers who have noticed a decrease in geographic knowledge in the incoming 7th grade students, but they are not sure of the cause. During my stay at one school nearby the district where I live, notable confusion of belonging between students and their subject matters studied at school have been identifying their problems as been meticulous: one student interviewed at the school's nearby bus station, the boy's name was Eric, a middle school student, was as follows, considering his views on education: "If I were to care, then someone should be caring about me. It is not a matter of a child being looked after where everyone just applauds

Ethnographic Film and Post Colonial Discourse Essay

Ethnographic Film and Post Colonial Discourse - Essay Example Hybridity is given as antidote to essentialism, or "the belief in invariable and fixed properties which define the 'whatness' of a given entity"3. This kind of mutation modifies the established pattern with a 'mutual and mutable' representation of cultural difference that is considered in-between the colonizer and colonized. 4) Arif Dirlik, who developed Said's theory of Orintalism, proposes one more point of view. Dirlik suggested that the Orientals are striving to protect themselves by the shield of Orientalism; however living in the globalized world, they do not break ancestral traditions and rules. Most of ethnographic films represent postcolonial discourse in different meanings, but the 'red line' of such films is approximately the same: problem of an individual who has to acculturate and accept an unfamiliar outlook. More and more cinema festivals are dedicated exactly to ethnographic films, more and more film directors got interested in this topic from the time of inventing motion pictures up to nowadays. In this essay it is necessary to mention such masterpieces as "Act of War - The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Nation", "Nanook of the North", "First contact" and "The River" (Reka). "Act of War -"Act of War - The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Nation" (1993, made by Punipau and Joan Lander). In 1778, when the British traveler Captain James Cook and his crew landed at Hawaii, they were surprised to find hard-working people and a highly developed civilization. At the same time, for the Native Hawaiians, this first contact with Europeans caused a lot of events that completely derived them of their independence and culture. This provocative documentary chronicle included photographs and commentaries and re-produced the period of American annexation of Hawaii in 1898. The struggle of authentic Hawaiians against social, political and cultural invasion was vividly shown in this film. "Nanook of the North" was created by legendary Robert Flaherty in 1921, is possibly one of the best known of the silent era documentaries. Flaherty had undertaken a long voyage to the sub-Arctic eastern coast of Hudson Bay during which he filmed the landscape and filmed Eskimo communities. Flaherty's intention was to make a film collaborating with the local inhabitants. Also he discovered problematic side of the Inuit community as some kind of "eternal", noble race that lives in total isolation and is resistant to westernization. Flaherty perfectly re-created an Eskimo culture: the main character's everyday life including hunting seal, fishing, building igloo was caught by Flaherty's camera. The directors shares his incredible respect to a culture that has learned to not just survive but flourish in such a severe environment. The main theme of film can be formulated as following: "humanity against the nature, but human is the nature". Problem westernization

Breast Feeding and Prevention of Breast Cancer Research Proposal

Breast Feeding and Prevention of Breast Cancer - Research Proposal Example This was particular for BRCA1, which is one of the breast cancer faulty genes. The other one is BRCA2, and did not show any response to breast feeding, regardless of the length. Since the Swedish study, researchers have been giving contradicting results about breast cancer and breast feeding (Carlson, 2012). This means that research is ongoing to try and further elucidate whether it is a myth or a fact. This study looks at experimental research to prove the fact that breast feeding will actually offer a protective advantage against breast cancer. Objective This research draws its hypothesis on already done researches to assume that there is a protective advantage against breast cancer in breast feeding. Therefore, the main objective is to find out the truth in the allusions that the earlier researches have come up with. It focuses on evidence to prove that there is truth in breast feeding having a protective effect on breast cancer. Further, the study also intends to give mothers and would be mothers the probable duration of breast feeding that will help to check the risk of breast cancer, despite it being a very personal decision how long one plans to breast feed. Background Globally, breast cancer accounts for almost 10.4% of all the cancers among women. A large percentage of this occurs in third world countries (Goldberg, 2009). Control would be gained among women and health practitioners if it was to be detected earlier before becoming critical. This means that ignorance has been the cause of high cancer mortality rates in developing countries around the world. Screening practices and breast cancer awareness will help a great deal in enlightening people about the disease. The level of ignorance about breast... To evaluate the hypothesis of a protective advantage against breast cancer in breast feeding, the research employed a cross sectional study method by use of a structured questionnaire in a period of two months. The questionnaire covered demographic principle and breast cancer risk factors. The main objective of the research is to find out the truth in the allusions that the earlier researches have come up with. The paper focuses on evidence to prove that there is truth in breast feeding having a protective effect on breast cancer. Further, the study also intends to give mothers and would be mothers the probable duration of breast feeding that will help to check the risk of breast cancer, despite it being a very personal decision how long one plans to breast feed. Further, the results provide evidence that women breast feeding for longer periods keep themselves protected against breast cancer. Additionally, there is evidence in the fact that most women in first world countries either do not breast feed or breast feed for shorter periods, hence there is high rates of the disease in those countries. Basing on evidence, breast feeding has a significant protective effect on breast cancer. The study above proves that women who frequently breast feed reduce their risks of getting the disease significantly in comparison to women who do not breast feed. Therefore, this study confirms the hypothesis. From this study, mothers should breast feed their babies for a period of at least one year.

Human resource management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Human resource management - Essay Example However, other forms of motivations discussed in this essay enable companies to increase their productivity. Motivation refers to any incentive or force that seeks to develop, direct and sustain behaviours of employees (Perkins & White, 2011, ch.6). The first theory that seeks to explain how employees are motivated in the workplaces is the expectancy theory. This theory also explains the relationship between pay and performance in the workplace. Expectancy theory is based on the notion that employees consciously choose options that maximize pleasure and minimize pain. In the workplace, this is evident by employees working hard in order to have a better life and lifestyle (Thompson, 2009, p130). Expectancy theory correlates efforts and performance; employees will perform according to expectations in order to achieve rewards (Marsden, 2004, p16). The reward helps the employee to satisfy his or her needs. The satisfaction gained from the reward makes the work worthwhile. According to this theory, the employees have a choice while doing their work (Marsden, 2004, p17). The goal setting theory, on the other hand, emphasizes more commitment rather than incentives as the prime motivation for employees. The theory suggests that employees work harder if they are committed to attaining their individual and company goals (Thompson, 2009, p130). The goals increase the effort and performance of the employees. The goal setting theory is often complimented by, to some extent, the use of incentives. The incentives should be because of the employees setting their own goals (Grimshaw & Ribery, 2010, p361). Moreover, the goals should be attainable and realistic and not far-fetched (Marchington, Mick & Wilkinson, 2008, p47). The manager’s task, while adopting this motivational theory, is to achieve balance between the set goals, the difficulty and challenging nature of the goals and the incentives for completion of the goals (Kessler,

Increae productivity and safety at night shift Research Paper

Increae productivity and safety at night shift - Research Paper Example Running head: INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY AND SAFETY AT NIGHT SHIFT Increase productivity and safety at night shift [Name] [Course] [Professor’s name] [Date Contents Page No Abstract Acknowledgement 1. Introduction 12-14 2. Literature review 14-21 3. Methodology 21-25 4. Result 25- 54 5. Discussion 54-60 6. ... iew on general first aid 41 Figure:-32- Male worker’ view on night arrangement of first aid 42 Figure:-33- Female worker’ view on night arrangement Of first aid 42 Figure:-34-Medical interventions in emergencies 43 Figure:-35- percentage male (>2yrs) regarding Job security 44 Figure: 36- percentage female (>2yrs) regarding Job security 44 Figure: 37- percentage male (2yrs) workers 47 Figure: 42- Monthly remuneration of male (2yrs) satisfied with Remuneration 49 Figure: 47- percentage Male workers (2yrs) witnessing Job deprivation 51 Figure: 52- percentage male workers (

Digital Evidence and Social Media Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Digital Evidence and Social Media - Article Example The case of Governor Chris is one where digital evidence served to show his vengeance against the mayor of the city. In the case, emails were released as prove that Governor Chris did orchestrate massive traffic issues in Fort Lee in New Jersey. The incident was an act of retribution that had some political connections. The release of the emails as that were evident as part of the investigations about the allegations did spiral into a major political scandal because of the weight of credibility that they carry. In dealing with digital evidence, it is noteworthy to know that electronic activities leave a sequence of footprints (Kizza, 2010). Therefore, it is very easy too although trying to find some specific evidence may seem quite laborious because of the volumes involved. In the case of Governor Chris, he used emails in order to plan his revenge activities. The incident led to the closure of access lanes leading to a massive traffic jam. Although the port authority managed to justify the decision by claiming that it was conducting a traffic study, the latter justify the incident. There was the retrieval of the emails used to make the orchestrations sent directly from the Governor and they formed the basis of filing a scandal against him. When working with digital evidence, no doubt one has to ensure a lot of care because the evidence is very volatile. The previewing and acquiring of data may potentially disturb the data to the extent of changing its status thus causing some doubts concerning his credibility. Therefore, one has to follow some logical steps in order to ensure that the evidence is intact (Kizza, 2010). In the case against Governor Chris, Wildstein did provide a number of emails that Chris’s staff sent to state lawmakers’ panel that was investigating the closures.  

Art of Negotiation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Art of Negotiation - Assignment Example Effective negotiation skills are the solution to every conflict despite the extent of the conflict. Leaving the money on the table is a lose-lose negotiation skill. In a lose-lose situation, both parties in dispute end up being worse off. Each party in this situations feels that they have lost and therefore none claim being discriminated against. In some case, a win-win option is available but the involved parties are not aware. In the case of two prisoners being convicted of similar crimes, a lose-lose, win-lose or win-win situation can happen. This depends on how the criminals individually respond to the allegations against them. If both the criminals confess to the charges are maximum equally sentenced lose-lose situation occurs. If neither of them confesses to the charges and a minimum sentence is laid on them, then they experience a win-win situation. However, if one prisoner accepts and the others decline the allegation at the expense of the other, making his or her opponent face sentence alone, then a win-lose situation occurs. In many countries, elections are bound to have some disputes especially after the announcement of final results. None of the candidates believes and wants to accept the fact that they have been defeated. Therefore, allegations are made on petty issues such as biased counting of votes, bribing of voters, ineffective electoral process, and instrumental failure among others. In such situation, an effective negotiation skill has to be put in place to avoid long and short-term effects to the nation. For instance, war and rivalry among communities. As a negotiator, I would use my negotiating skills in this situation in a wise manner. In the case of some of the allegation by the loser has some basis, the lose-lose situation would have to take place.  

Boredom - What Can Teens Do About It Essay Example for Free

Boredom What Can Teens Do About It Essay I have heard it time and again I am bored! . These words have came from the mouths of many teenagers. Sure, we have the libraries, the parks, the internet cafes, the malls all around us. Yet, we still hear many teenagers around us saying that they long for something completely different than the aforementioned something that caters more to their interests. So what can we do for these bored teenagers? You see, we have all the facilities etc. From bars to reacreational areas, places offering live music, a countless amount of shopping malls. Yet, teenagers are still bored. Thus I think it is crucial to ask the young people would like to do, then officials can plan their activities and build the venues accordingly. If we dont, we will face the risk of continually seeing teens loitering around at the back alley or even committing crimes. More town meetings and conferences involving teenagers is vital to planning activities that they will enjoy. To simply assume that these adolescents will benefit from certain activities without asking them first will leave the place with empty centers and businesses that alienate many teens. For example, business catering to teen hobbies could be set up to host events for teenagers. Perhaps they could create some kind of contest, that would offer various skatebored equipments and apparel as prizes. The contest could include what many teenagers would enjoy: Music and Food. This way, instead of wasting money to build expensive venues to provide entertainment to curb teenagers boredom, the money could be spent on setting up activities that can guarantee success as they cater to the wants of the teens through the survey, therefore this could be done for these bored teens. As the world grows, the technology advances and companies like Apple come out with creative new devices like iPhones and iPads. When teens get caught up by these addictive trends of using iPad and iPhone, they would love to access them and use the interesting applications everyday. However, eventually their interest does not last as they would get tired of doing the same thing of staring into the iPhone or iPad screen. Instead of investing time into things that are not of much productivity, and does not help them develop any useful skill, they could first try to be creative and explore their artistic side is really great when they have nothing else to do. They could think of what things in life are really exciting or interesting to them, and think of a way they could incorporate some aspect of those things into their alone time. Once they start doing something creative,they can always go back to it, and they will never be bored. For example, they could take some free time to learn how to play a music instrument, in particular an easier one that you could easily learn by themselves at home which would be a guitar. This would help them develop an appreciation for music of they could learn well and it would bring out the more artistic side of them, instead of wasting time and getting bored from blindly following the trends of using electronic devices. Doing anything creative like learning an instrument will be beneficial to your growth as a person, it will broaden your skills and perspective on life, and it will also be fun. It begins with a recognition that every circumstance, every activity, contains within it the potential to yield value, either to us or to someone else. If we insist on always being passively entertained by life, we will find ourselves bored by much of it. On the other hand, if we can transform that expectation into a determination to make an effort to create value at every moment, we can begin to make even the most mundane experience interesting. For example, we can start up a conversation with a friend and know more about them which would enhance the friendship between the both of them. One minute you will be bored ad the next minute you will be busy talking with your friend to kill time. Talking also makes us forget about the time passing without our realisation. This also allows us to be engaged in something rather than staring into space, doing nothing which would benefit them in one way or another. Talking enhances communication skills and at least, one can bond more with her friends which would make one less bored. Engaged in the conversation, new facts about one another rise up to create a stronger bond between them. This would benefit one rather than doing nothing and feeling bored. Another way could be to eliminate boredom by looking for any interesting or purposeful activity in which you will feel energetic and less bored. A question that one may like to consider would be to think of how the activity will benefit one befoe doing something when one feels bored. Communication would make one more open-minded and an extrovert. In conclusion, there are many ways to escape boredom. But the problem here is that teenagers now do not know how to kill time. If they invest enough time to do something worthwhile such as learning how to play a musical instrument or enhancing their communication skills by conversing with a friend, they will not find themselves getting bored. Teenagers should engage in activities that they know will entertain them. For example, an avid reader can find time to visit the library rather than staying at home and watch television or do something unproductive. Thus, teenagers should know themselves and what they like and take part in activities that interest them. This will solve the problem of teenagers being bored all the time.

South Africa World Cup 2010 Project Leadership

South Africa World Cup 2010 Project Leadership Executive Summary This paper analyses the project of the Soccer World Cup held in South Africa in 2010 on behalf of FIFA. An introduction to the project at hand is laid out to explain the situation in which the project took place. A critical evaluation of the project is made, determining the facets that the Government and organising committee had to effectively deal with, what type of leadership styles were implemented, how team building progressed, the project life cycle and the external factors influencing this project. Improvements are recommended for some aspects of this project that could have made the Soccer World Cup more successful than what it was deemed to have been. Some of these recommendations include; better team building, more effective planning, budgetary concerns and public relation issues. The World Cup Opening Ceremony was a major success, followed by the first goal of the World Cup in the first game between South Africa and Mexico. When Siphiwe Tshabalala, of South Africa, scored the first goal, South Africans deemed the project a success. Introduction to Case Study FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association) has taken it upon themselves to be the guardian of the game all over the world, in every shape or form. According to FIFA World Cupà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ (2010), their mission statement is, Develop the game, touch the world, build a better future. They do not merely focus on playing the game but rather they have to focus on every aspect that may affect the game and all that the game stands for. Rules, laws, players, developing the game and using this sport to bring hope to people all over the world, especially those less privileged than others. FIFA World Cupà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢(2010) states that the World Cup started in 1930 in Uruguay and this inaugural World Cup was won by the host team. There have only been two times since the inauguration that the World Cup was not hosted and that was during World War II. South Africa recently hosted the FIFA Soccer World Cup. This is the project that will be used as a case study as I am a South African citizen and am currently residing in the country. Information that has been referred to on this project has been experienced firsthand. This was the first time that the FIFA World Cup that was hosted by an African Country. The Soccer World Cup was hosted in South Africa from June 11th 2010 to July 11th 2010. 32 teams participated in the World Cup with the final game being played between Spain and Netherlands. Spain reigned victorious. It was a major project for South Africa, as although the country had previously hosted the cricket and rugby World Cups, it was the first time that this type of World Cup was hosted in the country and the event was made up of many projects. Many project defining aspects needed to be started from scratch. The project management was run by the Government who recruited a number of different resources, companies, personnel and task teams with the hope of making the project a success. Most importantly they assigned the role of project coordinator to Danny Jordaan. The areas that needed to be addressed included, amongst others, stadium construction and improvements, airport construction and refurbishment, infrastructure and logistics, transportation, accommodation, policing and justice, immigration, finance and health. Each of these projects needed to be successful in order for the event to be a success. This project consisted not only of these internal projects but was also influenced by external factors such as the countrys image to the world, opinions of South Africa by other countries and contractual agreements with FIFA. Therefore media and marketing were also part of the project. The success or failure of the project would impact on the economy and general well-being of the country for many years to come even after the event had taken place. The project management team needed to ensure that the projects that were undertaken would have a positive outcome on the countrys operations even after the event had taken place and concluded. Transportation and the creation of jobs could be highlighted as the most crucial aspects of the World Cup. These components are highlighted as crucial as their impact would be felt most notably once the event concluded on July 11th 2010. The construction of the stadiums was crucial as although many rugby and cricket stadiums already existed in South Africa a lack of soccer stadiums was obvious. Transportation also needed to be improved as although the government felt that roads were acceptable pre-World Cup with the influx of people from all over the world, roads and transportation systems needed to be improved. Highways were expanded and refurbished, additional buses were bought and coincidentally the construction of another transportation project, the Gau-train, would be fast-tracked to be used for the World Cup. The benefit that South Africa did have was that the country was also selected to host the Confederations Soccer Cup during June 2009. The country was able to use this event as a type of a trial run for the World Cup. The rapid bus transfer system was tested in Pretoria and errors or faults that occurred were able to be rectified before the World Cup the following year. The projects success will be analysed in order to determine the factors of project management that were used, the elements of team building that are available and how the leadership aspects, styles or type of management could be changed to make improvements to the project. Critical Evaluation According to Kerzner (2009) project management and in turn project success can be defined as completing a project within the allocated time frame, within budget, meeting a specified performance level, with as few changes to the scope as possible. Project management and team building go hand in hand when dealing with any type or any form of a project. This is because almost all projects, even when operating in a virtual environment, have people involved. When dealing with a project such as the Soccer World Cup, a third aspect fits into project management and team building just as critically. This aspect is public relations. According to the Independent institute of education (2010) although public relations can be seen as its own concept away from project management, the people involved in the project need to be aware of the standings with regards to public relations. With the World Cup being such a worldwide event, with sold out stadiums and an estimation of over a billion people wat ching, what the media says, or what the world thinks will be of critical importance to determine whether the project was gauged as a successful or failure. The main problems or areas of improvement that the South African World Cup organizers had to deal with were construction, ticket sales, transportation and crime. According to Cooke Tate (2005) project management can be defined as a culmination of knowledge, skills, expertise, systems and programs that ensure that the work that is being done, by a team of people, is in fact working towards accomplishing the strategic goals of the organization or fulfilling the aims of the project to which they have been assigned. Project management will need to bring together different areas of an organization, or that of a number of different organizations such as finance, administration, human resources, marketing or operations to work in unison to achieve the aims or goals. Project management has been developed so that a single department or person working on a project has control and visibility over all the other departments to ensure that the project runs smoothly, for the Soccer World Cup 2010 that person was Danny Jordaan. The project manager will oversee all departments and actions to try and produce a successful outcome. Project management is made up of many sections and sub headings that need to be considered. The following subjects need to be addressed when developing a project and have been summarized from Shtub Globerson , 2005. Communication guidelines and the hierarchy of leadership need to be established. Lifecycle planning needs to take place to ascertain which model would be best suited to your project. Implementation and monitoring is the next area that needs to be addressed. When and how the project will be implemented and how this will be monitored to establish control. Then cost estimates and budgeting need to be developed and contingencies need to be established as to where the cost can exceed budgeted amounts and where cut backs could be implemented if needed. Variance is an aspect that all projects need to be aware of as nothing in life is certain, external environments are constantly changing and a project needs to know where it can change and where there is no room to adjust. The project needs to have prepared for any expected changes that may affect their plans or any unexpected changes that could drastically impact the outcome of the project. An important and final aspect that many projects o ften forget to include is the closeout. In the case of the soccer World Cup in South Africa, the closeout will happen in varied stages but need to be included in the planning. The initial closeout occurs when FIFA approves the set out requirements, other close outs occur at the closing ceremony, and then when projects that were included in the World Cup preparations are complete, this may be months or even years after the final whistle had blown on the final game. All projects have a project life cycle and they can vary in length. A project lifecycle is typically made up of the following 5 stages, (Gray and Larson, 2006); Project Management can be divided into five parts: Project charter development Request for Proposal Development and Process Planning Design Project team creations, Project kick-off Planning (Work Breakdown Schedule), Budget Implementation/monitoring/control Project termination, hand-off to operations management. In the case of the soccer World Cup the project life cycle would have been spread out over a number of years, even before the World Cup was awarded to South Africa. The government had to tender a proposal to FIFA against other competing countries to be allowed to host the World Cup. Therefore the project life cycle would have started pre-2004. As different projects were started and came to an end, each would have had their own life cycle as well. Each project had to go through a tender process as well. An example of a tender used for Green Point stadium has been attached in Appendix A. Different projects will also take on different life-cycle formations or models. The most commonly accepted of these models are the waterfall project lifecycle model, the agile project lifecycle model, the iterative model and the spiral project life cycle model. Each model has different strengths and weaknesses and therefore some models are better suited to different working environments. Each sub-project, underneath the main World Cup South Africa project, would have made use of different life-cycles. The World Cup would have to have implemented the Spiral project lifecycle model as Mall (2009) explains; this model combines elements of design and prototyping-in-stages, in an effort to combine advantages of top down and bottom up concepts. This model can also be referred to as the spiral development model; it is a systems development method. This model of development combines the features of the prototyping model and the waterfall model .The spiral model is intended for large, expensive and complicated projects. The World Cup was expensive, intricate, and took place all over South Africa. The stages of the project also overlapped and did not have to wait for the completion of one project to start the next. For example the building of the airports and stadiums were not contingent on the completion of the roads or other transport projects. The project was awarded to South Africa on the 15th of May 2004 and the start of the project began soon after however some parts of the project are still busy being completed, even after the World Cup. Although the highways and roads were open to be used at full capacity during the World Cup, the construction of these roads and highways are still taking place today. In comparison to standard projects that organizations will take on, and the case study at hand, the soccer World Cup in South Africa, certain aspects of normal operations will differ quite substantially from this type of project. The teams that worked on the World Cup in South Africa were not working in a normal business environment. Their end product was not intending to gain a competitive advantage over other competitors in the same market. The products they were producing were not to be resold yet a profit needed to be made. The product could not become obsolete, however there was a deadline date, that of the opening ceremony. The deadline date however was not that of the opening ceremony because South Africa was dealing with FIFA, FIFA required that all stadiums or any structures or projects relating to the World Cup were completed a number of months in advance. As South Africa was in control of hosting the World Cup, they were also responsible of reporting to FIFA to ensure that the FIFA World Cup was a success. Stephen Blatter, the president of FIFA, was heavily involved in the operations taking place in South Africa and Danny Jordaan was the project coordinator for the Soccer World Cup. With regards to leadership styles, two main types of leadership styles generally exist, autocratic or exclusive and democratic or inclusive. A democratic leader takes other individuals opinions and ideas into consideration before making the final decision. Danny Jordaans style of management can be seen to be democratic. His involvement with the World Cup showed that he had South Africas best interests at heart. He took into consideration other leaders opinions and advice and worked in close unison with Thabo Mbeki and Nelson Mandela when securing the tender bid to host the World Cup. Reports needed to be presented on weekly and monthly basis and he was the spokesman for interaction with the media in relation to World Cup activities. FIFA however are deemed to be autocratic. FIFA can be seen to be a franchise. Every four years a different country is elected to host the World Cup. FIFA has certain contractual requirements that each country needs to meet in order to be granted the privi lege of hosting such a prestigious event. Although South Africa could decide what the stadiums would like and how the upgrades would take place, FIFA required a certain number of stadiums to be erected or improved, for certain activities to take place and other similar requirements. The project management team needed to be compiled of a number of individuals with different areas of expertise. Although the project had a start and end date (11th June and 11th July), a budget and a scope as most projects do, the areas that this project needed to delve into were vast. The South African government had tendered to organise the World Cup. In order to successfully accomplish this, a number of facets needed to be improved, developed or started from scratch. These areas include, (Media Report, 2010), amongst others; Infrastructure stadiums needed to be built and renovated. Health Although no pandemics were forecast, they needed to be prepared. Transportation the highways needed to be improved, as well as public transport. Finance- a developing country would need to analyze budgets with high scrutiny. Technology- new fibre optic cables for televising the games worldwide. Electricity- Eskom had guaranteed power for all games, through the use of generators. Safety and Security Xenophobic attacks sent shocks throughout the world, this needed to be stepped up. Immigration- a new type of visa was created to allow access to more foreigners. Hooligans were banned. Accommodation availability and standards were a worry. Media and marketing- people needed to feel safe coming to South Africa. The South African Government identified the dramatic changes to transport logistics in South Africa as the legacy that would remain for years to come. The issues identified above are just a few examples of the projects that the overall project manager or project coordinator, Danny Jordaan, would need to have expertise on, and it would seem highly unlikely that one person would have this type of knowledge; however general management could appoint a number of sub-project managers to oversee each department and report back to one project manager. Danny Jordaan might not have had the expertise in each sub-section of the project however he was able to employ other team members to take control of those areas. Information taken from the Background Information on Government Preparations for the 2010 FIFA WORLD CUPà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ (2010) shows a breakdown of each element that the government was dealing with. The government had weekly and monthly report sessions for each area of development. In order for a project to be successful the team that works on the project needs to be selected in a certain manner. Dr. Meredith Belbin defined a team role as: A tendency to behave, contribute and interrelate with others in a particular way. He spent a number of years working on the theory about teams. Dr. Meredith Belbin has written a number of books and one of his fundamental theories is based on team roles. The roles that individuals will fill when placed in a certain situation when trying to achieve a certain goal. Individuals have different personalities and different strengths and weaknesses. Belbin initially believed that the success or failure of a project would rely on the intellectual levels of the team members. According to Belbin associates, (2010), he ran a simulation test at a university for over ten years to determine the grounds of his theory. The theory is that a teams success or failure is not reliant on intellect but rather on the balance of roles that each individual will assume when in a certain environment. This team roles can be divided into three sub-sections and then into 9 individual team roles. The three main sections are Action-oriented, People oriented and Thought oriented. Action-Oriented roles include Shaper, Implementer and Complete-Finishers. People Oriented Roles include Coordinator, Team Worker and Resource Investigator. Thought oriented roles include Plant, Monitor Evaluator and Specialist. Advantages and disadvantages that make up each team role need to be discussed and understood in order to create the most effective team for the project at work. According to Belbin Associates (2010) and Belbin himself, (1993) the different roles have different pros and cons. The shapers advantages include the drive to challenge team members to improve, they are dynamic people, who are extroverted and who stimulate others. They also avoid complacency by introducing new attributes. Negative characteristics include that they are argumentative and are not sensitive to other peoples feelings. The implementer is characterized by people that get things done, those who take ideas and turn them into actions. They are conservative, disciplined and work systematically. The disadvantages however are that they show inflexibility and resist any kind of change. Complete finishers have the advantageous characteristics that ensure that a project is completed with all the small details completed. They are focused on deadlines and can be seen as perfectionists. These characteristics lend themselves to worry unnecessarily and these individuals find it difficult to delegate tasks to others for the fear of losing control of the task at hand. Belbin also identifies advantages and disadvantages for the other roles too. The coordinator leads the team to achieve the goals and objectives that they perceive as realistic. They are excellent listeners, calm, good natured and are able to delegate tasks, however sometimes the coordinator delegates away too much authority and may be seen to be manipulative. The team workers provide support to the team and ensure that all the team workers are able to work together effectively. They are able to be flexible, diplomatic and perceptive. Their disadvantages have been identified as having tendency to be indecisive and do not commit to any major decisions. The resource investigators are innovative and curious. They explore other options available to them and handle negotiations. These team members may however be overly optimistic and lose their enthusiasm for the team and their own roles rather quickly. The final three roles also each have advantages and disadvantages. The plant role is cr eative, flourishes on praise and invents new ideas or advances. The disadvantages however are that this team member finds criticism very hard to handle or accept, they are introverted and prefer to work alone. Their communication skills are poor and often ignore restrictions or restraints that they are given. The monitor evaluators strengths include that they are ideal at analysing and evaluating other team members ideas, they are successfully able to weigh up pros and cons of different possible investments, and are critical thinkers. Their drawbacks are that they can be detached and unemotional; they are poor motivators for their team members and wait to react to events rather than instigate them. Finally the ninth role, the specialist, that was added on later by Belbin include advantages of that they pride themselves on their skills and abilities, they are focused on their professional status and are an expert in a certain area of knowledge. Their disadvantages include that they m ay limit their contribution purely to what they consider themselves to be expert in and may lead the team to become pre-occupied with technicalities and small detail rather than the overall plan. In relation to the World Cup information on which techniques were used for team building are not readily available, however it has been assumed that Belbins theory was used when selecting the teams that were brought together for this project. Each team involved with the project would need a careful balance of the team members in order to be successful. A key element of team building is the stages of team development as developed by Tuckman (1977); Forming, Norming, Storming, Performing and finally Adjourning. Each individual team that is part of the World Cup development project needed time to adjust to each stage to team development. It is clear that the construction teams on site had not properly adjusted to team development as they coordinators of these projects had to deal with strikes and unrest at many of the stadiums. The projects where the majority of teams were based, transport and infrastructure is what the world watched most with regards to development projects, it is here where nation branding took place. The way in which South Africa wanted to portray itself was largely reliant on what was reported in the media and in the news. Strikes, delays and xenophobic attacks were in the news for a large majority of the time leading up to the world cup. Due to this the branding of the country was portrayed in negative lighting for a lot of the time that should in fact have been used for positive and encouraging reporting. The influx of foreign tourists to South Africa missed the original goal by a large number. Due to many of these factors the income to the country was much less than the expenditure and much less than what was expected. According to an article in the Telegraph, South Africa made a return of just  £323m on the  £3bn it spent. In conclusion to the critical reflection; the sustainability that FIFA brought to South Africa for the World Cup was not incorporated into the countries national strategy and therefore many of the strides that the country made during the World Cup were quickly eliminated when the final whistle was blown. Recommendations The specific details of the areas of which project management, project leadership or team building activities used during the World Cup were not readily accessible. Therefore the overall outcomes of the world cup and which practices should have been more heavily included can be deduced. Although information about the World Cup as a whole was available the smaller projects techniques and tools were not made available to the public. In critical review of the World Cup one of the most unsuccessful areas of the project was the budget or cost aspect of the iron triangle. To illustrate the point, (Pedroncelli, 2010), Soccer City Stadium, which hosted the opening and closing ceremonies for the World Cup was completed at R1 billion over budget. Strikes at other stadiums such as Green Point, forced organisers to bring in negotiators for increases in salaries, and the lost time then forced the Government to enforce additional shifts at higher costs to finish on time as the completion deadlines were non-negotiable. Imports of construction materials ran over budget as the rand lost strength to other currencies and prices escalated higher than what the budget had predicted. Therefore although the scope and time were met, the cost was extraordinarily higher than predicted. This could be due to two reasons, either the budget was not well planned out and the estimates and actual costs were not realistic and not well researched or revised, or the variance of aspects discovered in the project was vast. It seems that the variance was the reason to blame for some of the over spending on the project. Poor planning could be blamed for this. Elements such as strikes or increases in costs of materials could have been realised beforehand and more concisely included in the budgetary stage of planning. A recommendation for future projects is to research and predict more accurately about future fluctuations, or to buy materials in bulk at a known price so that variances do not occur at a later stage. A number of projects were not completed on time which can be viewed as contrasting as other projects managed to finish ahead of schedule. A recommendation for future projects of this nature is to learn from other projects which developed similar end products and were produced under similar circumstances. Green Point Stadium organizers could look at the development techniques used by the project co-ordinators of the Soccer City Stadium. Work breakdown schedules and organisational breakdown schedules should have been more precise and shared amongst projects with similar outlines. Managers in control of stadiums or projects that ran over budget or over time should take note of the way in which projects were executed which ended on time, on budget and had no scope creep. It is clear that as the sub-projects of the World Cup were each significant in their own right therefore each project was governed by different managers or by different planning committees. Some stadiums were handed over to FIFA ahead of schedule and other projects such as the construction and refurbishment of highways are still being completed after the event has ended. It is a recommendation that the tenders for the construction or refurbishments should have been sent out earlier. The tender, as attached in Appendix A, shows that although a very thorough and positive process was followed, it was only started in 2006, 2 years after the World Cup project was given to South Africa. If more time had been given to the constructors and those parties, the costs involved may have escalated less. The teams may have had more time to form The leadership style of FIFA cannot be changed. They are a corporate body that acts as a franchise in relation to the World Cup. They have a formula that works and they expect participating nations to follow this plan. This autocratic style is suitable to the environment in which FIFA operates. Danny Jordaans leadership style and approach to the World Cup was successful. Nelson Mandela said, when South Africa was awarded the privilege of hosting the World Cup that, South Africans should treat this decision with humility and without arrogance because we are, after all, equal. Danny Jordaan focused on bringing South Africans together. From the construction workers on the roads and in the stadiums to fans to corporate CEOs funding different projects, all parties felt part of the World Cup, because the country felt proud to host the World Cup as one nation not separate races. The final recommendations that would be made however include; Better planning for variance conditions. These conditions include: working environments and severance, stability of the Rand against currencies or then bulk buying. Earlier tender dates for highway construction. Improved communication with the media for a positive reflection of the host nation. Incorporating FIFA changes into the national strategy in order to retain the positives. Increased time for team development on different projects. If projects were tendered and started earlier, strikes and delays may have been less severe. Ensuring the project coordinator is democratic or inclusive when dealing with a force as strong as FIFA in its autocratic behaviour or tendencies. Conclusion In conclusion the Soccer World Cup hosted by South Africa, on behalf of FIFA, in 2010 was a successful project. As indicated in the recommendations a number of improvements could be put forth that could have eliminated some of the problems that the Government and other parties experienced. A focus on public relations should have been highlighted. The xenophobic attacks prior to the World Cup should have been better handled by the Government to reduce the negative image that is portrayed of the country. Communications between the sub-projects could have been better established so that problems experienced on one site could be avoided on another. The leadership styles executed by the parties involved were well executed and appropriate. FIFA is a corporate organization that operates as a franchise when dealing with the World Cup. Their style therefore needs to be autocratic. They need the country which is hosting the World Cup to fulfill certain goals and expectations. Danny Jordaan, the project coordinator, executed a democratic or inclusive style of management which worked well in the environment in which he was operating. He was able to successfully execute the project, although over budget, by incorporating all South Africans into the buildup of the World Cup. Budgetary problems experienced by the organizing committee could have been overcome through better planning and better time management. Tenders and start dates of the projects could have been brought forward to an early date, relieving the tensions of deadlines and fluctuating prices. If the start dates had also been brought forward it may have allowed teams more time to go through the development stages of forming, norming, storming and performing. The construction of the highways may also have been completed to a better schedule. To summarise one moment of the World Cup that truly showed the success of such a tournament being hosted in Africa for the first time was when South Africas striker, Siphiwe Tshabalala, scored the first goal of the tournament. The country celebrated as one, and brought the African spirit alive.

Social Penetration Theory Psychology

Social Penetration Theory Psychology Abstract The Social Penetration Theory is a communication and psychology theory first written by Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor. The theory outlines concepts of social interaction that takes place when two people are getting to know each other. Altman and Taylor proposed that closeness occurs between two people through a gradual process of self-disclosure. The theory relies heavily on the ‘Onion analogy that suggests that people are like multi-layered onions and have different layers of their personality that they may or may not reveal over time depending on the interaction that takes place. The theory also outlines other aspects of social interaction such as the ‘cost and reward concept. This concept suggests that people base their relationships around the cost and reward outcomes and how they can benefit from that relationship. This report explains in detail the key concepts and ideas of the Social Penetration theory as well as other theories that are related with social penetration such as the Social Exchange Theory. To further investigate the effects of Social Penetration experimental research was found to support the effects of self-disclosure in regards to the Social Penetration Theory. After comprehensive study and research on this topic it was found that closeness between two people develops over a period time and through a process of self-disclosure. If self-disclosure is not apparent then the relationship is likely to fail. According to the theory people base their friendships on a process of cost and reward benefits but will usually do this sub-concisely without knowing that they have used this method to determine their relationships. Key ideas such as ‘comparison levels suggest that an individual determines whether the relationship is working by the process of profits = Rewards – Costs. Introduction Purpose The purpose of this report is to understand the social interaction that takes place between people and to study the fundamentals of human behaviour during the gradual process of social penetration. This report is aimed at giving the reader a better understanding of key concepts of the Social Penetration theory and how it is used in everyday situations. Scope To fully understand and explain this theory research was conducted over several areas that directly relate to the Social Penetration Theory. These areas of research came from 6 main literature sources ranging from journal articles to large-scale social experiments that put the theory into practice. Internet research was also conducted. Limitations The limitations of this report include: Availability of information Due to the detail needed to fully understand the concepts of this theory commonly used sources such as libraries proved to be of little help when finding information to write this report. Detailed Internet sites were also hard to come by when researching this theory. Time restrictions: At first time was not considered to be a major issue but due to the availability of information in both library sources and databases time restrictions did become a concern nearing the deadline of this report. Research methods When conducting research regarding the Social Penetration Theory commonly used sources such as libraries were not as useful as they normally would be. Although two of the 6 sources were gathered from libraries other information that was found in books was concentrated into sections of no more than 5 pages. Because this report needed to be detailed and informative these sources were of no use. When detailed books were finally found they were still not as useful as the longer articles found using Internet sites and databases. When searching for information using Internet databases such as Proquest I was able to find much more in-depth and detailed information into the study of Social Penetration. Searching for information using Internet articles and journals proved to be the best way to find accurate sources. Structure of report This report is organised into the following structure: Title page, including submission details and abstract. Table of contents. Introduction, includes details on purpose, scope and research methods used to produce this report. Literature review, Provides detailed information on each individual source including background information on the author/s. Findings, includes descriptions on the theorists, outlines the key concepts of the theory, application of the theory and an evaluation of the theory. Conclusion, summarises the key points and concepts of the theory and critique of the theory. References and glossary of terms, references alternative web-sites and books that were also used when researching as well as a glossary of terms that explains key words used in this report. Literature review West, R., Turner, LH. (2007). Introducing Communication theory Analysis and Application (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Summary The information from this source highlights the key components of the Social Penetration theory such as the Onion analogy and assumptions of social penetration. It also has an in-depth section on the Social Exchange theory in regards to relational costs and rewards as well as guidelines for self disclosure relating to social penetration. The source also produces a lot of useful case studies and examples that put the theories into practice. It has examples that use a script to depict a conversation between two people in order to highlight the use of social penetration, social exchange and self disclosure. There is also an expanded references section that references the sources of information used for this book. Accuracy And Validity The information contained in this book offers a high level of accuracy in regards to the Social Penetration theory, Social Exchange theory and self disclosure. Both authors have done extensive research on communication theory and wrote numerous books and articles on the subject. Co-author Richard West is an accomplished Professor and has a Ph.D from Ohio University. His research spans a number of different areas, including family communication, instructional practices, and classroom communication. He is the recipient of various teaching and research awards at USM, including the College of Arts and Sciences, Outstanding Teacher-Scholar and the Faculty Senate Award in Communication Research. Co-author Lynn H. Turner teaches in the College of Communication at Marquette University. She received her Ph.D. from North-western University in 1989. She is the author of several journal articles, books, and book chapters focused on communication studies. She is the recipient of the Marquette Uni versity College of Communication Research Award and numerous other awards for communication analysis and theory. DeVito, J. (2004). The Interpersonal Communication Book (10th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc Summary This book covers the main concepts of The Social Penetration theory and the Social exchange theory. The section on the Social Exchange theory also features information on comparison levels in relationships as well as profits, rewards and costs and briefly describes aspects of the equity theory in regards to social exchange. It also goes into detail on intimacy and risks of relationships and deterioration of personal relationships. There is also detailed information on the depenetration of relationships and the stages that it involves such as withdrawal, decline in self disclosure, deception and positive and negative messages. Accuracy And Validity The author of this book is Joseph A. DeVito a famous U. S. Communication scholar from Hunter College, New York. He is a member of the National Communication Association, the Eastern Communication Association, the International Communication Association, The International Society for General Semantics and the Society for the Study of Personal Relationships. He is has written over 15 textbooks on communication which are used by thousands of students worldwide. His articles have appeared in the Quarterly Journal of Speech, Communication Monographs, Communication Quarterly, Southern Speech Communication Journal and Central States Communication Journal. His extensive knowledge in communication and publication experience gives this textbook a high level of accuracy. Kito, M. (2002). Self-Disclosure in Romantic Relationships and Friendships Among America and Japanese College Students. Proquest physiology journals, 145(2), 127-140. Summary The information in this journal was produced by doing an experiment regarding self-disclosure and the Social Penetration process. It also explains in detail the key concepts of social interaction and self-disclosure. The author examined whether the level of self disclosure would differ across four types of relationships: passionate love relationships, companion love relationships, same-sex friendships and cross-sex friendships. The experiment was done by American and Japanese participants to examine any cultural differences in self-disclosure. The results produced three main hypotheses, Japanese students scored lower than American students in self disclosure regardless of relationship type, Self disclosure was higher in same sex friendships than in cross sex friendships in both American and Japanese students and self disclosure was higher in romantic relationships than in friendships among both American and Japanese students (Kito, M. 2002). The article also has information regarding each relationship type and previous authors that have studied similar topics and experiments. Accuracy And Validity This article and experiment was written by Mie Kito from the Department of psychology, California state university. She is a student at the university and won an award for research and creativity for this paper. She was also awarded the honour of presenting the theory at a psychology seminar in Vancouver, Canada. Allensworth, N. (1996). Social penetration: A description, research and evaluation Communication theory. PP. 1-25 Summary This document covers the main concepts of the Social Penetration Theory. It has a detailed description of the history including the history and progress of Altman and Taylor and the way the theory came into existence. It also incorporates the Onion diagram and describes the layers of social penetration in great detail. The article also has studies that were done in regards to self-disclosure and social penetration. They include various experiments that were carried out and the findings of the study. There is also a section on intercultural research to do with social penetration and self disclosure. Accuracy And Validity This paper was presented by Nicole J Allensworth at the Annual Meeting of the Southern States Communication Association (Memphis, Tennessee, March 27-31, 1996). The document was presented to researchers involved in communication research studies to affectively demonstrate the effects of communication within personal relationships. No other information was found on this author. Baack, D., Fogliasso, C. Harris, J. (2000). The personal Impact of Ethical decisions: A Social Penetration Theory. Journal of business ethics, 24, 1, 39- 49. Summary This Journal article discusses peoples ethical reasoning and beliefs in regard to social penetration. It talks about the structure and make up of each individual as well as personal characteristics and describes personal benefits in the form of cost and reward outcomes relating to social exchange and social penetration. The article also talks about Altman and Taylor and their understandings of social penetration theory. The article features the Onion diagram to establish the basic concepts of the Onion analogy and also has examples of these processes to put the theory into a real life situation. Accuracy And Validity This article was written by Donald Baack, Christine Fogliasso and James Harris. Donald Baack is a University Professor of Management at PSU. He has an undergraduate degree from Dana College, an MBA from Southwest Missouri State University, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nebraska. Baack teaches undergraduate level Organizational Theory and Behavior, Advanced Organizational Behavior, and graduate level Behavioral Management. Professor Baack is the author and co-author of eight books. Three are college textbooks, in the areas of Management, Organizational Behavior, and Integrated Marketing Communications. Christine Fogliasso is a University Professor in the Department of Management and Marketing at Pittsburg State University. Her Bachelors degree was earned at Pittsburg State University, and her Ph.D. at the University Of Kansas School Of Law. Her teaching and research areas are business law, ethics and communication. No information was found on author James Harris. Social Penetration: The Development of Interpersonal Relationships. (2001) . NewYork: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/interpersonal/socpen.html Summary This internet article has a brief summary that identifies the main concepts of the social penetration theory. The article also has a section on scientific assumptions which tries to explain that social penetration can be referred to as a scientific theory. It argues this point by saying that if self disclosure is high then the relationship will develop; this statement can be seen as an equation and therefore can be viewed as a scientific. Critique is another scientific concept that is explained in this article. This refers to predictions that are made on the relationship development based on the levels of self-disclosure within the relationship. The article also explains in detail how Altman and Taylors Onion analogy operates and how the theory compares people to multilayered onions. The ideas behind breadth and depth are also explained in this article. Accuracy And Validity This article was written by a company called Holt, Rinehart and Winston. They are an educational company that specialises in publishing textbooks and articles for secondary school students around the world. The company is based in Austin, Texas and has been providing educational tools since the early 1900s. Holt, Rinehart and Winston supply textbooks, learning CDs, eLearning sites and many other kinds of support material for teachers and students. Because Holt, Rinehart and Winston is a internationally known for producing high quality learning tools and equipment its accuracy and validity is of a high level. Findings:  Background of theorists Irwin Altman Irwin Altman was born on July 16th 1930 in New York. Altman mainly specialises in social psychology and social interaction and is experienced in most areas of communication. His tertiary achievements include a Bachelor of Arts degree from New York University in 1951, a Master of Arts degree from the University of Maryland in 1954 and a Ph.D. also achieved from the University Of Maryland in 1957. Altman also studies environmental psychology and believes there is a strong link between environmental psychology and social psychology, Altman has based many books and articles that relate to this subject. While developing the Social Penetration theory Altmans work was heavily based on human behaviour within different environments. Altman is heavily involved in associations including The American Association for the Advancement of Science, the International Association of Applied Psychology and the American Psychology Association. Irwin Altman is currently a professor at the University of Ut ah in Salt Lake City teaching psychology and social communication. Dalmas Taylor Dalmas Taylor was born in 1934 in Detroit, Michigan. After showing an interest in psychology in his teenage years he later went on to study for his Bachelor of Arts degree in Psychology from Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. His research and interest in psychology eventually lead him to further his studies when he received his Masters degree in psychology from Howard University in Washington D.C and his Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Delaware. Taylor also gained a certificate from Harvard University Business School. Early in his career Taylor worked with the SPSSI (Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues). During the late 1960s Taylor was the chairman of the Dissertation Award Committee and served for the SPSSI council for several years. During the 1970s Taylor began to teach psychology at various universities throughout North America and eventually became a Professor at the University of Maryland where he taught for 16 years. Taylor also worked with the APA (American Psychological Association) and eventually became a member of groups such as the Board of Ethic Minority Affairs, the Committee on Employment and Human Resources, the Policy and Planning Board and the Committee on Ethics Code Revision. His work with the American Psychological Association made very well known among psychologists and he received numerous awards from the APA. Later in his courier Taylor received the Distinguished Contribution to Education and Training Award of the Association and in 1992 he received the Distinguished Service Award for Outstanding Contributions to Psychology in the Public Interest. In final stages of his career Taylor served as Vice President of Academic Affairs at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania. Dalmas Taylor died in January 1998 at the age of 64 due to medical conditions. Outline Of Theory/key Issues Psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor first established the Social Penetration Theory in 1973. The theories main objective was to explain how relation closeness develops over time. Altman and Taylor suggested that closeness develops within a relationship through a gradual process of self-disclosure, they believed that this process could occur both consciously and sub-consciously when any kind of relationship is developing. This section of the report will describe the Social Penetration Theory by explaining its key concepts including: The onion analogy Self-disclosure Cost and reward outcomes/ Social Exchange Theory Depenetration and withdrawal The Onion Analogy The Onion analogy can be seen as the most notable aspect of the Social Penetration Theory. The model literally depicts an onion and is used as an analogy by Altman and Taylor to explain the foundations of social penetration. The analogy states that humans consist of layers much like an onion. Each layer reveals more about an individuals personality, the outer layers contain less personal information and the deeper layers consists of the most private details of a persons character. As a result the more layers penetrated the harder it becomes to ‘unlock the next layer. Often the type of relationship will have a heavy impact on the degree of penetration that occurs for example family relationships, personal relationships, same sex friendships and opposite sex friendships may all have different degrees of penetration that take place during a relationship. The penetration of the layers can be associated with two concepts. The first is ‘breadth which refers to the amount of issues and variety of topics being discussed and the second is ‘depth which refers to the degree of intimacy being applied on each topic. Each layer has a level of ‘breath and ‘depth depending on how personal the relationship has become for example friendships may have different levels of ‘breadth and ‘depth compared to a more personal relationship with a partner. Surface Layers The surface layers can be seen as superficial information about an individual such as what they look like, how they dress, their body language and how they talk. Information on the outer layers is given out a lot faster than the inner layers because it is not as personal. The surface layers can often be altered so that an individual can change the appearance they are producing when entering a social situation often for the first time. These changes will usually be things like the way they look and dress or material items such as cars or jewelry. The surface layers help to create a first impression to the outside world and is readily available to anyone who wishes to notice. After the initial surface layer is penetrated information such as their likes and dislikes, favorite movies, musical preferences etc. are revealed as the relationship progresses through the beginning stages. Central Layers The central or middle layers of the Onion Model can be seen as the characteristics of an individuals personality. This includes aspects such as religious beliefs, personal values and what they consider to be right from wrong. The central layers hold more understanding into a persons upbringing and culture. The central layers are usually only penetrable by people who know that individual well. In most cases it is unlikely that common friendship will go beyond the central layers. Inner Layers The inner layer of the Onion model holds a persons most intimate secrets and beliefs. It is the foundation of their personality and their self-concept. This layer can only be penetrated by the people who are closest to individual such as family members or their partner. Even then a persons most inner secrets might only be accessible by the individual them self. The inner layers of the Onion Analogy will heavily influence the central and surface layers because it is the basis of their personality. Self-Disclosure The term self-disclosure refers to the act of revealing details about oneself to others. This process can happen both consciously and sub-consciously depending on the degree of intimacy at any given point throughout the relationship. Personal and intimate details about our personality are usually revealed over time as the relationship becomes more meaningful and important to us. Altman and Taylor believed that the only way a relationship can develop is through a gradual process of self-disclosure. This process is necessary in both romantic relationships and friendships. The act of self-disclosure is one of the main principals in the study of social penetration as well as psychology. Altman and Taylor state that this is the key process that decides if a relationship will succeed or fail particularly if it is a romantic relationship. Altman and Taylors ideas on self-disclosure have sparked many studies on the effects of self-disclosure in both close relationships and common friendships. In 1986 Berg and McQuinn tested self-disclosure by asking couples that had recently started dating to complete a self-disclosure examination. Four months later the couples were then asked to take the same examination. It was found that couples that were still together four months later reported greater self-disclosure at the initial contact then those who had later broken up. T his experiment suggested that the level self-disclosure was not only based on the length of the relationship but also the satisfaction levels of the individuals when they were first getting to know each other (Berg McQuinn.1986). Altman and Taylor believed that the process of self-disclosure allowed for a relationship to develop to a more personal level. By allowing this process to occur penetration can take place through the various layers of the ‘onion (the onion analogy). Altman and Taylor believed that the process of penetrating the inner onion layers is especially important when long-term relationships are developing thus making the process of self-disclosure one of the key concepts of the Social Penetration Theory. Cost And Reward Outcomes/Social Exchange Theory The cost and reward outcomes of the Social Penetration Theory were initially based around the concepts developed from Social Exchange Theory. Psychologists John Thibaut and Harold Kelly were seen as the main developers of the Social Exchange Theory in 1959. The Theory is based on a model of cost and reward outcomes of relationships (both friendships and personal relationships) and states that people develop relationships based on whether or not they will profit in the long run. Thibault and Kelly claim that based on the equation: profits = Rewards – Costs, people will continue being in a relationship if the profit or outcome is in their favour. The idea of costs and rewards is analysed in the theory by using the concept of ‘Comparison levels. This concept suggests that people have a general idea of what they expect or what they deserve to get out of any particular relationship whether its a personal relationship or friendship, this is your known as your ‘comparison level. For example in a personal long-term relationship the individual might expect high levels of trust, love and commitment. If the relationship has just started however they may expect lower levels of privacy, sexual activity and deep communication. When the rewards and profits out way this comparison level the satisfactory level of the relationship will increase for that particular individual. ‘Comparison levels for alternatives ‘refers to the suggestion that people will compare the rewards they are getting out of their current relationship with rewards and profits they could get out of an alternative relationship. For example an individual may feel that they are getting the maximum profits out of their current relationship therefore they are likely to stay with their current partner. If however they feel the relationship has more costs than rewards they are likely to leave that relationship to find a more profitable relationship (DeVito, J. 2004). Altman and Taylors Social Penetration Theory relies on this same method of cost and reward outcomes to determine the path of a relationship. Depenetration And Withdrawal Although the Social Penetration Theory examines how a relationship develops it also acknowledges and describes the ways in which depenetration and withdrawal can occur. This occurs when the relationship begins to deteriorate either because of a falling out or simply because the individuals begin to grow apart. The first stage of deterioration is usually ‘intrapersonal dissatisfaction, this occurs when everyday life with the individual seems to be less and less eventful or for filling. If this dissatisfaction continues then the relationship will proceed to the next stage of deterioration. This stage is known as ‘Interpersonal deterioration, this stage involves growing further and further apart and spending less free time with that individual then they would have at previous points in the relationship. The process of withdrawal or depenetration occurs when one or more of the individuals begin to close of areas of their lives that had once been open in the earlier stages of the relationship. As a result the ‘breadth and ‘depth which once made the relationship more intimate and personal will now begin to reverse. This process can be seen as taking back what has already been used to build the foundations of the relationship, if the foundations are no longer apparent then the relationship becomes unstable. Altman and Taylor have compared this stage of depenetration to watching a movie in reverse (Griffin,EM 2006), in other words everything that has been put into the relationship will now begin to be withdrawn to some extent. A decline in self-disclosure will also be apparent because of the fact there is now less communication and social activities taking place. If there is a decline in self-disclosure levels then the relationship will no longer move forward. The absence of self-disclosure can often be due to a number of contributing factors including; one or more of the individuals no longer feeling comfortable to communicate with the other on a personal level, they are no longer trust worthy or they are simply not worth the effort. The depenetration and deterioration of a relationship rarely ends in a sudden burst of realisation but rather a gradual process of withdrawal due to lack of enjoyment and intimacy levels in the relationship. Application Of Theory The process of social penetration is solely based on communication and social interaction. As a result this theory is put into practice every day in a variety of situations from common greetings to a work mate to a personal conversation with a family member. Different social interactions will involve different levels of self-disclosure and communication. To illustrate how the theory affects people in everyday life an experiment was found to describe the effects of social penetration and self-disclosure in common relationships including friendships and romantic relationships. This experiment was done by Mie Kito from the California State University as part of her undergraduate honors program in 2003. The experiment gained her an award for research and creativity and was presented at the 83rd annual Western physiological Association Convention in Vancouver in May 2003. The purpose of the experiment was to examine different levels of self-disclosure among American and Japanese college students. She examined students that were involved in romantic relationships, companionate relationships and same sex and opposite sex friendships to find out if both cultural background and relationship types played a major role in the level of self-disclosure that was applied in everyday situations. To gain an accurate sample she found a selection of 145 college students, 64 of the students were American and 81 were Japanese. The purpose and aim of the survey was not disclosed to the participants and the information they provided was confidential and no names were obtained t o ensure the participants remained anonymous. The methods and procedures she used where as follows: Three standardized methods were used within the survey gain an accurate sample. These methods were the self-disclosure index (Miller. Berg. Archer.1983), the Passionate love scale (Hatfield Spencer. 1986) and the companionate love scale (Hatfield. 1986). The self-disclosure index is a target specific tool that can be used to measure self-disclosure among certain groups. The main differences between the companionate love scale and the passionate love scale is that passionate love refers to the feeling of unity with another individual who is not currently present where as companionate love refers to the bond between someone who is already heavily involved within an individuals life. When answering questions about passionate relationships the participants were asked to think of their current partner, if they did not currently have a partner then they were asked to think of the last partner that they shared deep feelings for. If the questions involved any friendships they were then ask ed to think of their closest friendship with either a same sex friend or opposite sex friend depending on the required relationship type for that question. The self-disclosure index included 10 questions of personal information including personal habits, things that the participant wouldnt do in public and their personal feelings on certain issues. Each relationship type was modified to relate to the available answers that could be chosen by the participant. For example one of the questions for the self-disclosure index for a Passionate love relationship was, â€Å"I am willing to talk about my deepest feelings on a personal issue with the person I am romantically involved with† and another question for self-disclosure in a same sex friendship was â€Å"Im willing to talk about my deepest feelings on a personal issue with a same sex friend†, She then provided the participants with scale of answers to choose from ran